The Psychology of Boredom

“I’m bored!” It’s a phrase that echoes through classrooms, car rides, and living rooms everywhere, and it’s often met with frustration, concern, or an iPad. Although boredom is a common emotional experience, it’s frequently viewed as a negative or even pathological experience. However, a growing body of developmental science suggests that boredom is not merely an inconvenience, but a meaningful and necessary part of development. With this in mind, we will explore different forms and functions of boredom, normative developmental trajectories of boredom, and practical strategies that help transform boredom into a constructive emotional experience.

Forms and Functions of Boredom

Psychologically, boredom can be conceptualized as a state, a temporary feeling that is a response to a situation, or alternatively, a trait, a stable disposition toward boredom. Boredom can take on many forms or types, depending on the situational cues involved. For example, research by Goetz and colleagues (2013) suggests five forms of boredom, aptly named as indifferent, calibrating, searching, reactant, and apathetic. In their model, each form is characterized by dimensions of emotional arousal and valence (i.e., the extent that an emotion is intrinsically “negative” or “positive”), whereby indifferent boredom, as an example, is characterized by low arousal and slightly positive valence, as might be the case when a person is relaxing and allowing their mind to wander. Taken together, the idea that there are various forms of boredom may not only provide clues related to why it occurs, but also provide information that may help us make informed decisions about how to navigate life.

Relatedly, whether implicit or explicit, most theories of boredom suggest that it is a dual-function state in some form or another. For example, Raffaelli et al., (2017) indicated that on the one hand, boredom disengages attention from unsatisfying contexts, while on the other hand, it prompts exploratory thought. Similarly, Zeissig (2023) suggested that boredom discourages engagement with knowledge that feels meaningless and encourages the search for experiences that are relevant. Likewise, Elpidorou (2014) highlighted that boredom helps people stay aligned with their goals by signalling a mismatch between their current activity and deeper needs or values. And lastly, Finkielsztein (2023) extended this perspective by framing boredom as a meaning-making emotion that signals misalignment between one’s activities and one’s values. Indeed, far from being a negative, frustrating, annoying, or passive state of disengagement, boredom is a motivational force that fosters reflection, creativity, imagination, innovation, and the pursuit of new goals and experiences. Though unpleasant, boredom’s discomfort is purposeful, it is fundamentally a call to action that can support autonomy and self-determination.

What is a “Normal” Amount of Boredom Anyway?

How common is boredom, exactly? Helping to answer this question, Larson and Richards (1991) used an experience sampling method to obtain data about various emotional states from nearly 400 middle school students over the course of a week. In their study, students were given pagers to report on their activities and emotions at random times when signaled. They found that boredom was among the most frequently reported states, both in and out of school (approximately 30 to 40% of sampled moments depending on the subject and instructional format at school, and approximately 15% of the time when outside of school). Together, their findings suggested that boredom is not only quite prevalent, it is also highly situational and peaks in low-autonomy, passive contexts.

Similarly, an experience sampling study of 3,867 adults in the U.S. provides the most rigorous moment-by-moment estimate of boredom. In this study, participants completed time-use and emotional reports every 30 minutes for 10 days. Results indicated that participants experienced boredom in 15% of the 30-minute sampling periods, and 63% of participants reported experiencing boredom at least once across the 10-day sampling period (Chin et al., 2017).

More drastic numbers come from some of the less formal literature, a poll reported by the New York Post (2019) of approximately 2,000 American adults. Here, respondents indicated that they experienced approximately 131 days of boredom per year, a metric that was calculated by converting the average percentage of a typical week that was considered not fun, boring, or dreaded (i.e., 36%) into hours per week (i.e., 60.48 hours/week), and then days in a year (i.e., 131.04 days/year). Yes, that’s right, 131 days out of the year! Although one might argue that this number would be lower should the survey only considered boredom per se, and not also when participants report things as not being fun or dreadful, the bottom line is that boredom is a normal, ubiquitous, and pervasive part of life.

Normative Developmental Trajectories of Boredom: The Usual Peaks and Valleys

We know boredom is a common emotional state from an early age, but do levels of boredom change across the human lifespan? The short answer is yes, while the long answer goes a little something like this. Integrating data from multiple sources, it appears that levels of boredom tend to rise into childhood, peak into early adolescence, decrease into adulthood, and gradually rise again into the 60s (Weybright et al., 2020; Giambra et al., 1992). What is more, is that these trends tend to be slightly different for men and women, in that women seem to experience a peak in boredom earlier in life, and a resurgence of boredom earlier, later in life.

It is likely that our experience with boredom is influenced by various developmental forces. Early in life, although children have an insatiable curiosity about the world, boredom might arise because they have a limited sense of autonomy and few self-regulation skills (e.g., initiating and organizing activities). In this context, children might require others to self-regulate and structure their environment so that they can engage in developmentally appropriate activities. When this is not the case, a young child’s boredom may be externalized as complaints of “nothing to do”, restlessness, and hyperactivity.

As children become adolescents, they separate away from caregivers, and with this separation, they must navigate some necessary loss and resulting emptiness. The loss of old relationship dynamics, beloved belongings, exciting activities, and fun places may create a void, or a sense of emptiness. In this context, when boredom comes, children begin to rely on their increasingly expansive sense of autonomy and more developed self-regulation skills to meet their own needs. However, if not navigated effectively, this may contribute to a host of negative outcomes, including frustration, anxiety, disengagement, apathy, hopelessness, helplessness, depression, or risk-taking.

From adolescence and into adulthood, boredom takes on yet another dimension. Adolescence and adults generally possess more cognitive and emotional tools to manage boredom, yet they also face environments that place extensive demands on these systems that can produce chronic disengagement and burn-out (e.g., homework and assignments that are not aligned with personal interests, repetitive work routines, constant digital stimulation). Boredom among adolescents and adults tends to be less about the absence of stimulation and more about the absence of meaningful engagement. When people do not align their values, goals, and daily activities, boredom may manifest as anhedonia, burnout, apathy, or existential dissatisfaction.

Taken together, levels of boredom tend to rise into childhood, peak in early adolescence, decline into adulthood, before rising again into the 60s. In the early years, boredom reflects limited autonomy and self-regulation; in adolescence, it emerges during separation, identity exploration, and loss of structure; and in adulthood, it signals misalignment between daily life and personal meaning. Far from being a pathological experience, boredom functions as a critical developmental signal that is to be honored, listened to, and respected.

Are we Living in a Boredom Epidemic?

Although it seems that boredom is common at every juncture in life, it also seems to be on the rise. For example, in the previously noted study by Weybright et al. (2020), their analysis suggested that young people reported more boredom, year by year, from 2010 to 2017. Likewise, a meta-analysis that included over 28,000 college students in China similarly indicated that boredom proneness levels have increased from 2009 to 2020 (Gu, Yang, Su, and Liang, 2024). This seems to be an international trend that is not fully understood, although research points to several critical factors.

First, digital media use, especially problematic use, tends to be associated with greater levels of boredom. Mechanistically, it is argued that digital media use tends to divide attention via constant switching of content, raises the desired level of engagement (e.g., everything else tends to feel dull by comparison and people experience anhedonia, the inability to experience pleasure from previously pleasurable activities), inflates perceived opportunity costs (e.g., makes us think that the “grass is greener on the other side” and that there’s always another, possibly better option), and reduces meaning through low-goal, low-value consumption loops.

Second, low levels of autonomy or agency in daily life tend to be associated with more boredom. In other words, our perception of control and autonomy shapes boredom intensity, but not in a straight forward way, in that low and high perceived control often lead to boredom, albeit for different reasons. On the one hand, high perceived control may be experienced as boring because the situation lacks challenge, while on the other hand, low perceived control may be experienced as boring because the situation precludes effective engagement.

Third, few opportunities for free time and self-directed play tend to be associated with more boredom. Since children and adolescents are spending fewer hours practicing self-generated engagement (i.e., initiating goals, tolerating low stimulation, building “interest from nothing”), boredom may become both more frequent and harder to resolve without external stimulation.

Fourth, social disconnection tends to be associated with more boredom. In a world where parents need to work more than ever, divorce rates are soaring, friendship groups are shrinking, young people are understandably more susceptible to boredom.

But if boredom seems to be a normal experience that has many helpful functions, why does it matter if it is on the rise? In short, because when it is not responded to appropriately, it is a reliable predictor of poorer outcomes. For example, a meta-analysis of 29 studies found that higher degrees of boredom at school are associated with lower levels of academic achievement, motivation, and learning strategies (Tze et al., 2015). Similarly, others have found that higher levels of sustained boredom during free time was associated with higher level of depression, emotional dysregulation, hyperactivity, conduct problems, antisocial and delinquent behavior among adolescents (Spaeth et al., 2015; Iannattone et al., 2024).

Furthermore, when boredom is frequent, ignored, or not acted upon in a productive manner, it may turn into a pattern called boredom proneness, a trait-like tendency to experience boredom often, and is linked to negative outcomes such as depression, aggression, substance use, and lower life satisfaction (O’Dea et al., 2024; Spruyt et al., 2020). As a whole, the literature indicates that when not addressed, boredom can lead to a host of negative outcomes and is not simply a hollow complaint.

Practical Strategies for Parents and Educators

Rather than eliminating boredom, we all need to learn to live with it, listen to it, and work with it. Parents and educators can foster creativity and manage boredom in the following ways:

1. Teach young people to identify and listen to boredom

• • Help children and adolescents label when they are feeling bored versus simply idle or distracted.
  • Encourage young people to treat boredom as an informative state. It may indicate a mismatch between current activity and deeper purpose or interest.
  • Explain that the goal of tolerating boredom is to give it space, so that we can “hear” what the boredom might be pointing to (e.g., “I need something more meaningful,” “I’m stuck in routine,” “I’d rather be doing something different”).
  • Normalize the experience of boredom and frame it as an opportunity for self-discovery and growth rather than a failure, deficit, or laziness.
  • Encourage a mindset that boredom can be a catalyst for meaning. When young people learn to sit with boredom rather than immediately escape it, they develop self-regulation, executive functioning skills, persistence, and deeper attention even in less stimulating contexts.

2. Provide ample self-directed and unstructured time
   • Give children periods of self-directed and unstructured time rather than constantly trying to fill every moment with entertainment or scheduled lessons so that young people can learn to manage attention, frustration tolerance, and cognitive flexibility in less stimulating environments.
   • Consider using gradual exposure. For young people who have a low tolerance for boredom, scaffold short periods of unstructured time and build up their tolerance over time.
   • Include quiet reading, journaling, independent exploration or “brain-wander” sessions at home or school.
3. Offer open-ended prompts
   • Use questions such as “I wonder what you’ll come up with” or “what do you feel like doing right now?” to foster initiative, decision making, and autonomy.
   • Avoid directing every move and allow time and space for broad themes to emerge (“build something that floats”) rather than micromanaging.
4. Create low-screen environments
   • Establish screen-free hours or “device-quiet zones” to reduce reliance on digital entertainment as default escape.
   • Encourage alternative materials or play experiences that allow for richer engagement and self-direction.
   • Make screen use meaningful. Passive screen use provides stimulation without genuine engagement; it fills the gap boredom leaves, but it does not provide the benefits of actively doing, thinking, or creating. Over time, this can hinder the development of autonomy, resilience, and self-determined behavior.
5. Provide simple, versatile materials for imaginative play
   • One of the most effective tools for promoting self-regulation is play. Autonomous and self-directed play provides natural opportunities for children to practice focus, frustration tolerance, and cognitive flexibility. For humans, as in most mammals, play functions as an important developmental training ground. According to Hsu et al. (2025), play enables children to navigate challenges and stress, and those who are able to shift and adapt their play styles tend to demonstrate greater persistence and lower levels of boredom.
   • Rotate materials occasionally to spark curiosity and novelty (introduce new tools or rearrange existing ones).
   • Encourage adaptable play tools rather than overly structured toys. Stock a “boredom bin” with items such as cardboard, tape, markers, string, cloth scraps.
   • Remember, fewer toys often promote more creativity.
6. Avoid over-structuring free time
   • Limit constant lessons, scheduled activities, or adult-directed entertainment that leave no space for initiative.
   • Strike a balance: structure without rigidity, freedom without chaos. Support autonomy without overwhelming.
7. Model curiosity, patience, and frustration tolerance
   • Educators and parents may demonstrate how they deal with being bored, shifting gears, tolerating uncertainty, and eventually acting on insights.

Practical Strategies for Kids and Teens

1. Notice and name boredom

• • Pause and recognize when you are feeling bored rather than immediately trying to escape it.
  • Ask yourself what might be causing the boredom. Is the activity too easy, repetitive, or not meaningful to you?
  • Remember that boredom is often a signal that something needs to change. But here is the catch, the something that might need to change is not necessarily happening ¨right here, right now¨. It might be related to another part of your life.

2. Give your mind time to wander

• • Allow yourself a few minutes or even a few hours of quiet time before reaching for a phone or a screen. Just let your thoughts drift and see what ideas or interests come to mind. Daydream and allow your mind to wander as this can help new ideas emerge.

3. Start something small

• • If you are unsure what to do, begin with a small activity rather than waiting for the perfect idea. Clean or organize a small space, sketch something, write a few sentences, or begin a simple project. Simply getting started often builds momentum and motivation.

4. Try creating something

• • Draw, build, write, cook, craft, or invent a game.
  • Use simple materials around you to design or construct something new.
  • Creative activities often transform boredom into curiosity and exploration.

5. Challenge yourself

• • Try an activity that stretches your abilities slightly.
  • Boredom can be an invitation to discover new interests, so practice improving a skill or learn something new. This might include a sport, musical instrument, art activity, learning a new language, reading a book. But remember, activities that are moderately challenging tend to feel more engaging than those that are too easy or too difficult.

6. Change your environment

• • Move to a different room, go outside, or explore a new place. Take a walk, spend time in nature, or simply change where you are sitting or working. A new environment can refresh your attention and motivation.

7. Move your body

• • Physical activity can help reset your mood and attention. Try stretching, dancing, riding a bike, playing a sport, or going for a short run. Movement often increases energy and focus.

8. Connect with other people

• • Social interaction can often turn boredom into enjoyable shared experiences. Spend time with family, help someone with a task, talk with a friend, play a game together, or collaborate on a shared activity.

10. Turn boredom into curiosity

• • Ask yourself questions such as “What could I build?” or “What could I learn right now?”

Conclusion: A New Stance on Boredom
            Boredom in children and adolescents is not always a problem to be eliminated but can be a crucial part of healthy development. It serves as a signal that something needs to shift and motivates reflection, creativity, and meaningful engagement. When adults respond with patience and support rather than panic or distraction, boredom becomes an opportunity for young people to better understand themselves and their place in the world. The next time a child says, “I’m bored!”, we should hear it not as a hollow complaint, but as a quiet call for growth. Rather than silencing it, we should begin to treat boredom as an invitation to pause, imagine, and become.

References

Chin, A., Markey, A., Bhargava, S., Kassam, K. S., & Loewenstein, G. (2017). Bored in the USA: Experience sampling and boredom in everyday life. Emotion, 17(2), 359–368. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000232

Elpidorou, A. (2014). The Bright Side of Boredom. Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, 89(2). https://doi.org/10.1111/phpr.12093
Finkielsztein, M. (2023). The significance of boredom: A literature review. Journal of Boredom Studies, 1(1). https://www.boredomsociety.com/jbs/index.php/journal/article/view/3

Giambra, L. M., Camp, C. J., & Grodsky, A. (1992). Curiosity and stimulation seeking across the adult life span: Cross-sectional and 6- to 8-year longitudinal findings. Psychology and Aging, 7(1), 150–157. https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.7.1.150

Goetz, T., Frenzel, A. C., Hall, N. C., Nett, U. E., Pekrun, R., & Lipnevich, A. A. (2013). Types of boredom: An experience sampling approach. Motivation and Emotion, 38(3), 401–419. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-013-9385-y

Hsu, C.-F., Chen, V. C.-H., Ni, H.-C., Chueh, N., & Eastwood, J. D. (2025). Boredom proneness and inattention in children with and without ADHD: The mediating role of delay aversion. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 16, Article 1526089. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1526089

Iannattone, S., Mezzalira, S., Bottesi, G., Gatta, M., & Miscioscia, M. (2024). Emotion dysregulation and psychopathological symptoms in non-clinical adolescents: The mediating role of boredom and social media use. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 18(5), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-023-00700-0

Larson, R. W., & Richards, M. H. (1991). Boredom in the middle school years: Blaming schools versus blaming students. American Journal of Education, 99(4), 418–443. https://doi.org/10.1086/443992

O’Dea, M. K., Igou, E. R., & van Tilburg, W. A. P. (2024). Spontaneous self-affirmation predicts more meaning and less boredom. Motivation and Emotion, 48, 237–247. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-024-10060-7

Raffaelli, Q., Mills, C., & Christoff, K. (2017). The knowns and unknowns of boredom: A review of the literature. Experimental Brain Research, 236(9), 2451–2462. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-017-4922-7

Spaeth, M., Weichold, K., & Silbereisen, R. K. (2015). The development of leisure boredom in early adolescence: Predictors and longitudinal associations with delinquency and depression. Developmental Psychology, 51(10), 1380–1394. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0039480

Spruyt, A., Stins, J. F., Bixter, M. T., & Van den Bergh, O. (2020). When individual differences meet society: On the complex relationships between boredom proneness, self-control, and social norms. Personality and Individual Differences, 163, 110072. 1111-1131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110072

Tam, K. Y. Y., & Inzlicht, M. (2024). People are increasingly bored in our digital age. Communications psychology, 2(1), 106. https://doi.org/10.1038/s44271-024-00155-9.

Tze, V. M. C., Daniels, L. M., & Klassen, R. M. (2015). Evaluating the relationship between boredom and academic outcomes: A meta-analysis. Educational Psychology Review, 28(1), 119–144. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-015-9301-y

Weybright, E. H., Schulenberg, J., & Caldwell, L. L. (2020). More Bored Today Than Yesterday? National Trends in Adolescent Boredom From 2008 to 2017. The Journal of adolescent health : official publication of the Society for Adolescent Medicine, 66(3), 360–365. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2019.09.021

Zeissig, A. (2023). Boredom as the originator of a desideratum: Reflections on the creative and suppressive consequences of boredom in the school context. Frontiers in Sociology, 8, Article 1214069. 1-8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsoc.2023.1214069